Zambia

Officially known as the Republic of Zambia, the Southern African country is landlocked and bordered by eight countries, four of which are fellow Commonwealth nations. The Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, which starts at Lake Tanganyika and follows through to the Luapula River, driving a wedge into Zambia’s circumference thus giving the latter its distinct butterfly shape; Tanzania to the north-east; Malawi to the east; Angola to the west; and Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south, the latter three of which share a near-quadripoint with Zambia at which their borders meet near the Victoria Falls.

With a total area of 752,618 km², Zambia is roughly over twice the size of Germany and is home to one of the most youthful populations internationally. The majority of Zambia’s territory is sparsely populated and clusters of the population reside in the Line of Rail, Zambia’s developed industrial area where railway lines link Zambia’s part of the African Copperbelt with Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, as well as the border town called Livingstone.

Much of Zambia forms the high plateau of the southern region of the continent, about 1,500 metres above sea level on average, due to which the country is dissected by many river valleys and rifted troughs, some of which are lake-filled. The highest plateau, the Nyika Plateau, is located in the eastern part of Zambia on the Malawian border, and its highest point is approximately 2,100 metres located in the Mafinga Hills. Zambia’s highest point is Mafinga Central, in the Mafinga Hills, at approximately 2,339 metres above sea level.
Western Zambia is covered with sandy deposits, which are relicts of the Kalahari Desert back when it was more expansive across the region. The central and eastern parts of the country’s plateau comprise swamps and lake-filled depressions, though in the more elevated areas of the region there are ridges and isolated hills that are made of rocks resistant to erosion, which has affected most of the country’s territory, exposing ancient crystalline rock surfaces.

Demographics

Zambia’s population in 2022 is recorded at 19,693,423 in the final 2022 Census, rather than 19,491,332. It is expected to increase at a rate of approximately 2.8% annually. The nation has a very youthful population, with more than 60% of citizens aged 24 years or under.

As one of the African countries with the highest levels of urbanisation, the rate of urbanisation in Zambia is approximately 3.5% per annum, and around 47% of the population lived in urban areas in 2024. Population centres include Lusaka, Ndola, Kitwe and Mufulira.

Zambia is home to 72 ethnic groups, most of which are of African Bantu origin. Nine major ethnolinguistic groups (Nyanja-Chewa; Bemba; Tonga; Tumbuka; Lunda; Luvale; Kaonde; Nkoya; and Lozi) take up approximately 90% of the population. Among its population, there are communities of Asian, European and other origins.

In terms of religion, most Zambians are Christians practising either Protestantism or Roman Catholicism. Asians in Zambia may practise Hinduism, Islam or other faiths. As a widely ethnically diverse country, over 70 different languages are spoken across communities. Zambia’s official language is English, which is commonly used in official documents alongside Bemba and Nyanja, two of the country’s most widely used local languages.

Bemba, Nyanja, Tonga, Lozi, Kaonde, Lunda and Luvale are also widely used in education, administration, broadcasting and everyday communication in their respective regions. Language-use percentages should be omitted unless supported by a current official census or language survey.

History

Zambia was first inhabited by ancestors of modern humans thousands of years ago, as reflected in archaeological evidence from sites across the country. Zambia’s contacts with the Western world began through Portuguese and other traders in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; the statement that Portuguese “settlement” began in 1798 should be removed.

During the mid-nineteenth century, Zambia was ruled by many groups that had set up kingdoms such as the Kololo kingdom and Ngoni kingdom. At the end of the nineteenth century, British politician Cecil Rhodes set up the British South African Company (BSAC), which bore powers of administration and signed treaties with leaders of various kingdoms, thus marking the beginning of Britain’s rule over the country.

Changes came in the 1920s: the discovery and commercial development of copper in Zambia attracted European businessmen and merchants, expanding the workforce and leading to an influx of white settlers. However, by 1930, copper prices dropped drastically due to the Depression, and the British government’s plans of increasing white settlement failed.

The British created the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953, which was a union of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland (Malawi). In response, the United National Independence Party, formed by future President Kenneth Kaunda, campaigned for the dissolution of the Federation. The campaign concluded successfully in 1963, and Zambia gained independence one year later with Kenneth Kaunda from the United National Independence Party (UNIP) as President.

After growing political repression and economic difficulties under Kaunda, opposing parties such as the United Progressive Party (UPP) and the African National Congress arose. To secure his position in the 1973 election, Kaunda banned all opposition parties in 1972 by imprisoning opposition leaders and persuading other members to change sides. However, by the late 1980s, due to the drastic drop in copper prices, Zambia’s economy depreciated, causing food riots.

In 1991, the ban on opposition parties was lifted and the Movement for Multi-party Democracy (MMD) won the elections; its leader, Frederick Chiluba, became Zambia’s President.

In the twenty-first century, along with the rise in copper prices and the mining of other metals such as silver, cobalt, zinc and lead, Zambia’s economy grew sharply. Today, Zambia is considered a stable country with democratic elections held every five years. Edgar Lungu became the sixth president of Zambia in January 2015 after winning an election victory to replace former leader Michael Sata. He was re-elected in August 2016 after defeating his major rival, Hakainde Hichilema of the United Party for National Development (UPND), in a closely contested presidential election.

In the 2021 elections, Hakainde Hichilema finally won the elections and became Zambia’s seventh President. As at August 2026, Hichilema remains President; the next general election is scheduled for 13 August 2026.

Key Dates

Pre-colonial period Indigenous communities, kingdoms and chiefdoms develop across the territory of present-day Zambia.

Late 1800s British South Africa Company (BSAC) establishes control over much of Northern Rhodesia.

1920s Commercial copper mining expands, bringing an influx of European technicians and administrators.

1953 The British create the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which consists of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland (Malawi).

1960 Kenneth Kaunda forms the United National Independence Party to campaign for the dissolution of the Federation and independence of Northern Rhodesia.

1963 The Federation is dissolved.

1964 Northern Rhodesia gains independence with Kaunda as President and is renamed Zambia.

1991 Amendments to the Constitution allow multi-party elections and the Movement for Multi-party Democracy (MMD) wins the elections. The party’s leader Frederick Chiluba becomes the President of Zambia.

2015 Edgar Lungu becomes Zambia’s sixth President after winning the elections.

2021 Hakainde Hichilema, leader of United Party for National Development (UPND), wins the election and becomes Zambia’s seventh President.

2026 General elections are scheduled for 13 August 2026.

Legal System and Government

Zambia is a presidential republic with a multiparty system. The President is elected through universal suffrage and can serve a maximum of two five-year terms. The Parliament, consisting of the President and the National Assembly, performs legislative actions and various functions including approving proposals for public expenditure and scrutinising the work of the Government.

The Thirteenth National Assembly (2021–2026) has 167 members. One hundred and fifty-six members are elected by the first-past-the-post system, in which all Zambia’s citizens aged eighteen or above are entitled to vote. Eight members are nominated by the President, while three are ex-officio members: the Vice-President, the Speaker and the First Deputy Speaker. Every member of Parliament serves a term of five years.

Zambia practices a mixed English common law and customary law system. Under this dual legal system, the laws of Zambia are drawn from the Constitution, different legislation, statutory instruments, common law, judicial precedents and customary law. The Constitution is the supreme law, and any written law, customary law or customary practice inconsistent with it is void to the extent of the inconsistency.

The Constitution of Zambia provides that the Judiciary is independent. Courts in Zambia are divided into two categories: (1) the superior courts, which consist of the Supreme Court of Zambia, the Constitutional Court of Zambia, the Court of Appeal and the High Court of Zambia; and (2) the lower courts, comprising the Subordinate Courts, Small Claims Courts and Local Courts.

Judges, including the Chief Justice, are appointed by the President on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission and subject to ratification by the National Assembly. Local Courts play an important role in the application of customary law, particularly in civil, family, land and inheritance matters, subject to constitutional and statutory safeguards.

Economy

Zambia has a lower-middle-income economy, although it remains highly dependent on copper production and exports. The economy faced significant pressures from drought, electricity shortages and debt challenges in 2024, but mining, information and communications, finance and transport supported recovery.

Real GDP growth slowed during 2024 as a severe drought affected agriculture and hydroelectric generation. However, fourth-quarter GDP growth reached 8.6%, supported principally by information and communication, mining and quarrying, agriculture, manufacturing, and transport and storage.

Zambia’s economy is predominantly led by the mining sector, which contributes substantially to the country’s GDP, government revenues and foreign-exchange earnings. Copper remains the dominant export and accounted for more than 70% of export earnings. Zambia produced approximately 890,346 metric tonnes of copper in 2025, an 8% increase from 825,513 tonnes in 2024.

Copper and cobalt, the country’s primary exports, make up a substantial share of mining-sector revenue. Zambia is Africa’s second-largest copper producer and holds significant copper, cobalt and other critical-mineral reserves, making the sector strategically important to global energy-transition supply chains.

Other mineral endowments include gold, zinc, lead, iron ore, manganese, nickel, feldspar, sands, talc, barite, apatite, limestone, dolomite, uranium, coal and gemstones, including diamonds, emeralds, aquamarine, topaz, opal, agate and amethysts. In particular, Zambia produces a significant share of the world’s emerald supply.

Zambia’s agriculture sector also makes notable contributions to the country’s economy; it employs a substantial share of the labour force and contributes materially to GDP. On its 752,000 km² territory, large areas have agricultural potential, although only a portion is cultivated. The most cultivated crops and livestock include maize, cotton, soybeans, tobacco, cattle and sheep.

Zambia’s power production industry is important to the economy due to increasing demand for electricity. The country relies heavily on hydropower and is therefore vulnerable to drought-related reductions in water levels and generation capacity. This has increased interest in solar, wind, thermal generation, regional power trading, transmission infrastructure and energy-efficiency investment.

Trade

In 2024, Zambia’s GDP was recorded at approximately US$26.3 billion, compared with US$21.2 billion in 2021.

The nation’s top merchandise export, as has been the case for the past five years, is copper and copper-related products. Copper accounted for more than 70% of export earnings, leaving the country exposed to commodity-price and production fluctuations. Other notable exports include cobalt, sulphuric acid, tobacco, electricity, gemstones, precious metals, flowers and other non-traditional products.

In 2025, refined copper export volumes increased by 14.9% in the January–May period compared with the equivalent period in 2024. Export earnings from refined copper rose from ZMW19.6 billion in April 2025 to ZMW20.6 billion in May 2025.

Major export markets vary according to product and month, but include China, Switzerland, Canada, Singapore, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and regional Southern African markets. In terms of imports, Zambia mainly imports machinery, mechanical appliances, mineral fuels, vehicles, fertilisers, chemicals and electrical equipment. Major import sources include South Africa, China, the United Arab Emirates and India.

Zambia is a signatory of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA). The reference to “recent graduation from the LDC category” and automatic discontinuation of EU Everything But Arms preferences should be removed unless verified against current EU trade-preference rules, as eligibility depends on the applicable EU legal framework and transition arrangements.

Investment Opportunities

Zambia offers investment opportunities in mining, mineral processing, agriculture, renewable energy, manufacturing, logistics, ICT and tourism. Claims that Zambia is currently ranked by Forbes as Africa’s seventh-best country for doing business should be deleted unless a current, directly cited Forbes ranking is available.

The mining sector is undoubtedly the most developed and central pillar of the Zambian economy, with abundant investment opportunities still present in the extraction and processing of resources aside from copper, including gold, cobalt, zinc, lead and other precious metals. Opportunities also exist in copper smelting and refining, battery-mineral value chains, geological exploration, mining services and environmental rehabilitation.

At the same time, the government of Zambia is committed to diversifying exports and increasing the number of Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) to improve the capacity and efficiency of its public sector as well as physical infrastructure for better connectivity. Regarding agriculture, large areas of Zambia’s land mass have medium-to-high agricultural potential, while only a proportion is cultivated, showcasing the potential for development of non-traditional crops including cashew nuts, pineapples, cassava and several other horticultural and floricultural crops. Opportunities also exist in agro-processing and value addition of products to advance Zambia’s agricultural supply chains.

Due to the nation’s growing economy, the demand for electricity has also been steadily rising. While the country has substantial hydropower infrastructure and wood fuel resources, it still imports petroleum. The government is encouraging investment in petroleum and coal-powered electricity production, but increasingly prioritises investment in renewable energy sources, especially solar generation, as well as transmission, storage and mini-grid infrastructure.

The priority areas of investment for the manufacturing sector include food processing, textiles, mineral processing, leathering, electronics, pharmaceuticals and packaging products, all of which run parallel to the government’s objective to diversify exports.

As for tourism, Zambia is amongst the most prime locations for tourism in Africa, with extensive wildlife protected areas and its vast arrays of national parks, waterfalls, lakes and rivers. With such a vibrant tourist ecosystem paired with its rich culture and heritage owing to its diverse population, Zambia offers many collaboration projects, especially through PPP, for the development of holiday resorts, ecological hotels and lodging. In particular, the government is encouraging foreign investment into the Greater Livingstone City, a development project to expand the city and transform it into an ultra-modern city.

The Zambia Development Agency (ZDA) offers a wide range of incentives under the ZDA Act. The specific tax, customs-duty and VAT incentives in the original text should be verified against current ZDA, Zambia Revenue Authority and Ministry of Finance rules before publication, because eligibility thresholds, tax rates, priority-sector designations and incentive periods can change.